“The two categorical imperatives of the Second Amendment that a militia of the body of the people is necessary to guarantee a free state and that all of the people all of the time (not just when called for organized militia duty) have a right to keep arms derive from the classical philosophical texts concerning the experiences of ancient Greece and Rome and seventeenth-century England. Aristotle, Cicero, Machiavelli, and the English Whigs provided an armed populace with the philosophical vindication to counter oppression, which found expression in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. In this sense, the people’s right to have their own arms was based on the philosophical and political writings of the greatest intellectuals of the past two thousand years.” Stephen Halbrook



